Palaeolithic Period, Mesolithic Period, Neolithic Period

Ancient history can be divided into different periods according to the tools used by people then.

• Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age): 500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE
• Mesolithic Period (Late Stone Age): 10,000 BCE – 6000 BCE
• Neolithic Period (New Stone Age): 6000 BCE – 1000 BCE
• Chalcolithic Period (Stone Copper Age): 3000 BCE – 500 BCE
• Iron Age: 1500 BCE – 200 BCE4

Additional information:

• During the Palaeolithic era (about 2.5 million years ago to 10,000 years BC), early humans lived in caves, huts, and hills, as hunters and gatherers. They used stone and bone tools and stone axes to hunt birds and wild animals.
• During the Mesolithic period (ca. 10,000 BC to 8,000 BC), people used small, now polished stone tools, sometimes made of points, horns, bones, or wood. They are used as spears and arrows.
• On the other hand, in the Neolithic, humans began to use artificial methods to produce food. Agriculture and animal husbandry were two new practices that developed during this period. Some wild animals such as goats, sheep and cattle were domesticated and used for transport and agriculture.
• The period from which copper and stone were worked was called the Chalcolithic, meaning "stone-copper phase".
• During the Iron Age, people in large parts of Europe, Asia and parts of Africa began to make tools and weapons from iron and steel.

Copper stone

• At the end of the Neolithic period, many cultures began to use metal, mostly copper and a low grade bronze . In India it stretches from 2000 BC. to 700 BC
• Most of the people were mostly rural, living in the hills and rivers.

Additional information:

• One of the main characteristics of the Chalcolithic period is the multi-chrome bronze pore. Forms of glass found at Chalcolithic sites include "fenestrated pottery," pots with openings cut into the walls.
• Farmers usually raise livestock such as sheep-goats, cattle and pigs, and this food is supplemented by hunting and fishing.
• The main crops grown are barley and wheat, gram, bajra, millet, ragi millet, green gram, green and black gram.
• Houses built by Chalcolithic farmers were made of stone or brick. One example is a chain structure, a series of square buildings connected to each other with only retaining walls at the short ends.

Bhimbetka

• The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archeological site in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh that has many historical pasts. It shows the first signs of human life on the land of India and evidence of the Stone Age settlement that began in this area from the time of the Achulians.

Additional information:

• In the Bhimbetka rock shelter, depictions of animals, hunting scenes and geometric patterns are common themes in Mesolithic rock art. This shows the close relationship between early humans and their environment.

1957-58

• The Bhimbetka mountain shelter was established by VS Wakankar in 1957.
• The full extent and importance of the Bhimbetka mountain shelters was discovered and documented only in the 1970s.
• Since then, more than 750 mountain skins have been found of these 243 are in the Bhimbetka group and 178 in the nearby Lakha Juar group..

Additional information:

• The Bhimbetka Caves are located in the Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh, about 45 km (28 mi) southeast of Bhopal.
• The rock shelters of Bhimbetka lie in the foothills of the Vindyan Mountains in south central India.
• A UNESCO World Heritage Site consisting of seven hills and more than 750 rock formations spread over 10 km (6.2 miles)

Madhya Pradesh

• Bhimbetka Caves or Bhimbetka Rock Shelters are archeological sites in the MP for the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods and the prehistoric period.
• The Bhimbetka Caves are located in the Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh, about 45 km (28 mi) southeast of Bhopal..

Additional information:

• A UNESCO World Heritage Site consists of seven hills and more than 750 rock formations spread over 10 kilometres (6.2 miles).
• The Bhimbetka site contains the oldest known rock art in India and one of the largest collections of prehistoric art..

Traces of the earliest signs of Human life on the Indian subcontinent

• The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site in central India that spans the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, as well as the historic period. It exhibits the earliest traces of human life in India and evidence of the Stone Age starting at the site in Acheulian times.

Additional information:

• It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site with seven hills and over 750 rock shelters spread out over a 10-kilometer area. At least some of the shelters have been occupied for over 100,000 years.
• The Bhimbetka rock shelters were found by V S Wakankar in1957. It is popular for its prehistoric cave paintings done in red and white.

30,000 years

• According to studies, Homo erectus may have lived in the rock shelters around 1,00,000 years ago.
• This cluster's most recent rock drawings are roughly 30,000 years old. Many tales have been added to this location due to its antiquity.
• More than 750 rock shelters have been discovered since then. There are 243 of these in the Bhimbetka group, and 178 in the Lakha Juar group nearby.
• The evidence implies that there has been a continuous human presence here from the Stone Age through the late Acheulean to the late Mesolithic until the 2nd century BCE, according to the Archaeological Survey of India.

Additional information:

• These caves were discovered in 1958 by Dr. V. S. Wakankar, a well-known archaeologist.
• The extent and actual significance of the Bhimbetka rock shelters were only discovered and documented in the 1970s.

Wood

• The wheel was invented in the 4th millennium BC in Lower Mesopotamia(modern-​​day Iraq), where the Sumerian people inserted rotating axles into solid discs of wood. It was only in 2000 BC that the discs began to be hollowed out to make a lighter wheel.

Additional information:

• This innovation led to major advances in two main areas.
• First, transport: the wheel began to be used on carts and battle chariots.
• Second, and more importantly, it contributed to the mechanisation of agriculture (animal traction, crop irrigation) and craft industries (for example, the centrifugal force of the wheel is the basic mechanism in windmills).

Ropar

• Ropar - Ropar, also known as Rupnagar, is not on the bank of the river Indus.
• It is located on the bank of the Sutlej River in present-day Punjab, India.

Additional information:

• Chanhudaro - Chanhudaro is one of the sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. It is located on the bank of the Indus River.
• Mohenjo-daro - Mohenjo-daro is another significant site of the Indus Valley Civilization. It is situated on the bank of the Indus River in present-day Pakistan.
• Kot-Diji - Kot-Diji is another site of the Indus Valley Civilization. It is situated on the bank of the Indus River in present-day Pakistan.

Nageshwar

• The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways: They established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot where shells were available. Other such sites were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, the best source of lapis lazuli.

Additional information:

• The artists and craftsmen of the Indus Valley were extremely skilled in a variety of crafts—metal casting, stone carving, making and painting pottery and making terracotta images using simplified motifs of animals, plants and birds.

Steatite

• Harappan Seals were made of Steatite which is a kind of soft stone. Namely terracotta, gold, agate, ivory and faience was also used.
• The standard shape was square and sized 2x2 dimensions of the seals. The Indus civilisation is also known as the Harappan Civilisation.

Additional information:

• Thousands of seals have been discovered on various Harappan sites.
• Materials: The seals were usually made of steatite and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience gold, ivory, and terracotta.
• Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script which is yet to be deciphered.
• Animal motifs on the seals:
  • The seals had carvings of beautiful figures of animals, such as unicorn bulls, rhinoceros, tigers, elephants, bison, goat, and buffalo.

Burnt brick

• Harappan buildings were built using burnt bricks. The bricks were so well baked that they lasted for thousands of years. The bricks were laid in a pattern that connected each other, making the walls very strong.
• Standardized brick size: The cities of Harappan Civilisation were constructed using standardised bricks, with a uniform size of 1: 2: 4 ratio in terms of thickness:width: length across all IVC structures. This standardisation suggests a sophisticated level of planning and craftsmanship.
• There was equal uniformity in the average size of bricks for houses and city walls.

Additional information:

• The cities of the IVC, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, were well-planned and organized.
• For instance, the city of Chandigarh in India, designed by Le Corbusier, follows a similar grid system.

1951-52

• In 1951-52, the archaeologist B.B. Lal excavated at a village named Hastinapur in Meerut (Uttar Pradesh).
• He made discoveries of many Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites in the Indo‑Gangetic Divide and upper Yamuna‑Ganga doab.
• Additional information:
• Hastinapur:
• It was also known as the capital city of Pandavas and Kauravas at the time of Mahabharata. Sites related to Mahabharata spread across the Hastinapur like Vidurr Tila, Pandaveshwar Temple, Baradri, Draunadeshwar Temple, Karna Temple, Draupadi Ghat and Kama Ghat etc. Hastinapur is also a sacred place for Jain devotees.

Rectangular tank

THE GREAT BATH :

• It is one of the largest public buildings at Mohenjo- daro. It has a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
• A flight of steps leads to the surface at either end. It was well-paved with several adjacent rooms. There were side rooms for changing clothes.
• The bricks were water-tightly installed with gypsum mortar. The bath floor was made of burnt bricks.
• It is associated with a ritual bath, which has been vital to any religious ceremony in India.
• Water was drawn from a large well in an adjacent room, and an outlet from the corner of the bath led to a drain.

Ravi

• Harappa was situated on the banks of the river Ravi. The Indus Valley civilization was discovered first in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa situated in the province of West Punjab in Pakistan.

Additional information:

• Harappa was discovered in 1921 by Dayaram Sahni. The excavations were done under the guidance of Sir John Marshall and Colonel Meke. Remains of the Harappan civilisation has been found in other cities like Mohen-Jo-Daro, Ropar, and Alamgirpur.

RD Banerji

• Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922 by R. D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India, two years after major excavations had begun at Harappa, some 590 km to the north.

Additional information:

• The last major excavation project at the site was carried out by the late Dr. G. F. Dales in 1964-65, after which excavations were banned due to the problems of conserving the exposed structures from weathering.
• Since 1964-65 only salvage excavation, surface surveys and conservation projects have been allowed at the site. Most of these salvage operations and conservation projects have been conducted by Pakistani archaeologists and conservators.

Harappa

• Indus valley civilization is also known as Harappan civilization. It started flourishing along River Indus (now in Pakistan) at around 2600 B.C.Harappa was the first site of this civilization discovered by archaeologists. It was an URBAN civilization.

Additional information:

• The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization spreading from today’s North-East Afghanistan to Pakistan and North-West India. This civilization flourished in the river basins of the Indus and the Ghaggar-Hakra River.
• There are seven important cities in the Indus valley civilization:
  • Mohenjo Daro
  • Harappa
  • Kalibangan
  • Lothal
  • Chanhudaro
  • Dholavira
  • Banawali

Mohenjo-daro

• Mohenjo Daro, or "Mound of the Dead" is an ancient Indus Valley Civilization city that flourished between 2600 and 1900 BCE. The site was discovered in the 1920s and lies in Pakistan's Sindh province.

Additional information:

• Along with Harappa, Mohenjo Daro is the best-known site of the bronze age (3300 BC to 1200 BC) urban civilization.
• It flourished in the Indus Valley between roughly 3,300 BC and 1,300 BC, with its ‘mature’ phase spanning the period 2,600 BC to 1,900 BC.
• Civilization went into decline in the middle of the second millennium BC for reasons that are believed to include catastrophic climate change.
• Excavation of Mohenjo Daro was started in 1920 and continued in phases until 1964-65, even now only a small part of the site has been excavated.

Sindhi

• The name Mohenjo-daro, which is located in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan, is said to mean "Mound of the Dead Men" in Sindhi.
• It was discovered in 1922 by R. D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India.
• At about 3 mi (5 km) in circuit, it was the largest city of the Indus civilization, and it probably served as the capital of an extensive state.
• It was built around the same time as the Great Pyramids of Egypt.
• The ruins were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.

Additional information:

• The site is famous for its elaborate town planning with street grids with brick pavements, developed water supply, drainage, and covered sewerage systems, homes with toilets, and monumental buildings.
• Its excavations revealed findings like the Great Bath, Great Granary, a large assembly hall, temple-like structure, the seal of Pashupati and a bust of a bearded man.

Mound of dead

• The name Mohenjo-daro, which is located in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan, is said to mean "Mound of the Dead Men" in Sindhi.
• It was discovered in 1922 by R. D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India.

Additional information:

• Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were two major cities that thrived in the Indus valley.
• The layout and planning of the twin cities were identical.
• These towns' remains demonstrate that the civilization was highly advanced, with knowledge of effective municipal governance and urban design.
• The urban plans for the cities incorporated the world's first urban sanitation systems.
• The towns had a robust wastewater management system that was far superior to what is available in many parts of India and Pakistan today.
• The townspeople had trading networks and kept animals. Nonetheless, by 1700 BC, this great society had vanished.

Sindh

• Mohenjo-Daro, also known as the "Mound of the Dead," is located in the Sindh (Pakistan) district of Larkana, about 5 km from the Indus River.
• Mohenjo-Daro is a Sindh province archaeological site.
• It was constructed in 2500 BCE.

Additional information:

• Mohenjo-daro was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980.
• Mohenjo-Daro was the largest city of the Indus valley civilization. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro can be called the capital cities of civilization.

Chanhudaro

• Chanhudaro, a city of the Harappan Civilization, was exclusively devoted to the craft production of shell objects.
• Chanhu-daro being one of the larger sites with a lot of potential for excavation.
• However, excavations at this site have not been ongoing recently, resulting in a decrease in contributions.
• Although it is located in a desert, it is thought that the Sarasvati River formerly flowed nearby.

Additional information:

• The Chanhu Daro has provided evidence of factories producing a variety of figurines, seals, toys, and bone instruments, suggesting that it was a village with a large number of craftsmen and an industrial town.
• Sesame, a South African native, has been found in a number of Harappan sites, including Chanhudaro, where it was likely planted for oil. Peas are farmed at Chanhudaro as well.

Harappa

A stone male dancing figure called Nataraja was discovered at Harappa. Nataraja is a representation of the dancing form of the Hindu god Shiva, and the figure's symbolism includes:

• Flaming aureole: Represents the circle of the world
• Long, flowing dreadlocks: Signify the energy and dynamism of his dance
• Four arms: Each holding symbolic objects, such as a damru (hand drum), agni (fire), and a snake
• Smile: Represents both "death and life, both joy and pain"

Additional information:

• Nataraja's dance can be classified into two forms: Tandava, which is vigorous and masculine and represents destruction and power, and Lasya, which is gentle and feminine and represents creation and grace.

Dholavira

• There are two prominent sites which are found in Gujarat are Lothal (Ahmedabad) and Dholavira (kutch).
• Lothal Discovered in 1954, was excavated from 13 February 1955 to 19 May 1960 by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
• Dholavira was excavated by RS Bisht of ASI and his team in 1990.

Additional information:

• Dholavira was divided into three principal divisions, two of which were strongly protected by rectangular fortification but the other Harappan towns were divided into two parts-Citadel and the Lower Town. A Middle town could be seen only at the site of Dholavira.
• Stone had been in use for constructions.
• Evidence of a sign board carrying 10-alphabet was seen.
• This is the site from where a megalith burial has been.
• Evidence of agricultural activities, like irrigation, dams and embankments has been seen.
• Dholavira gave the evidence of warehousing settlement of Indus Civilisation.

Uruk

• Uruk is not part of the Indus Valley Civilization. Uruk, also known as Warka or Warkah, was an ancient city of Sumer.

Additional information:

• The main sites of the Indus Valley Civilization are Rakhigarhi (first site with genetic testing), Sanauli, Farmana, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Mehrgarh, Harappa, Chanhudaro and Mohenjo-Daro.
• Harappa is an ancient city located in present-day Pakistan. It was one of the major urban centers of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Mohenjo-daro, also located in present-day Pakistan, was another important city of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Lothal is an excavated site located in present-day Gujarat, India. It was a prominent trading center and a major port city of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Dholavira

• Dholavira was located in an arid region and its agriculture and sustenance was based on water reservoirs which probably received water from the branches of the ancient Saraswati river.

Additional information:

• Kalibangan (literally black bangles) is located in Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan. It was one of the main sites of the Indus Valley Civilization and most scholars agree that it was located on the bank of River Saraswati which dried up by 2000 BC.
• Lothal was one of the southernmost sites of the Indus Valley civilization (IVC), located in the Bhāl region of what is now the state of Gujarat.
• Kot Diji is located about 22 kilometres south of Khairpur in the province of Sindh, Pakistan.

Indus Valley

• Dholavira is an archaeological site of immense importance associated with the Indus Valley Civilization.
• It represents the ruins of an ancient city of the Harappan civilization that was inhabited over a period of 1,200 years from 3000 BCE through 1800 BCE.
• The site is located near the village of Dholavira, in the Kutch District of the Indian state of Gujarat.

Additional information:

• The water system of Dholavira was very well planned with 16 reservoirs and water channels that stored water or diverted water from nearby rivulets.
• It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021.

Gujarat

• Surkotada is situated in the Kutch region of Gujarat, India, specifically on the left bank of the desiccated Sarasvati River.
• Discovered during excavations led by J.P Joshi in the early 1970s, this archaeological site offers invaluable insights into the urban planning, lifestyle, and cultural elements of the Bronze Age inhabitants in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization.

1980

• Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922 by R. D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India, two years after major excavations had begun at Harappa, some 590 km to the north.
• In the 1980's extensive architectural documentation, combined with detailed surface surveys, surface scraping and probing was done by German and Italian survey teams led by Dr. Michael Jansen (RWTH) and Dr. Maurizio Tosi (IsMEO).

Additional information:

• Mohenjo-daro is considered the most advanced city of its time, with sophisticated civil engineering and urban planning. When the Indus Valley Civilisation went into sudden decline around the 19th century BC, Mohenjo-Daro was abandoned.

Bull

• In the seals of the Indus Valley Civilisation, the unihorn bull is depicted the highest number of times.
• Additional information:
• The Harappan seal-tablets depict a number of animals, but eight are most common. Four of these are wild animals of the grasslands: rhinoceros, elephant, buffalo, and tiger.
• Cow, camel, horse, and lion were not depicted on seals. In fact, horse was an animal that was unknown to the Harappan Civilization.

REM Wheeler

• R.E.M. Wheeler, who became Director-General of the ASI in 1944, recognized the need to follow the stratigraphy of the mound instead of uniform horizontal lines. He brought military precision to the practice of archaeology, rectifying the shortcomings of Marshall's approach.

Additional information:

Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology

• 1875-Report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan seal.
• 1924-John Marshall announced the discovery of Harappan civilization.
• 1925-Excavation began at Mohenjodaro.
• 1946- R E M Wheeler excavates at Harappa.
• 1955-S.R.Rao begins excavation at Lothal.
• 1960-B.B Lal & B.K Thaper begins excavations at Kalibangan.
• 1974-M.R.Mughal began explorations in Bahawalpur.
• 1990-R.S Bisht begins excavations at Dholavira.

Manda

The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways.

• Nageshwar and Balakot were specialized centres for making shell objects.
• Chanhudaro was the centre of crafts production. It was specialist in bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.
• Manda- In 1976, it was discovered. It is the Harappan civilization's northernmost site. This site was used to gather wood for the people of Harappa.

Additional information:

• Lothal which was near sources of carnelian (from Bharuch in Gujarat), steatite (from south Rajasthan and north Gujarat) and metal (from Rajasthan).

3000 В.С.

• The Indus River Valley Civilization, 3300-1300 BCE, also known as the Harappan Civilization, extended from modern-day northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
• Important innovations of this civilization include standardized weights and measures, seal carving, and metallurgy with copper, bronze, lead, and tin.

Additional information:

• The Indus Valley Civilization is often separated into three phases: the Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE, the Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE, and the Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.

West India and Pakistan

• The history of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as Harappan Civilization.
• It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, in contemporary Pakistan and Western India.
• The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China.

Additional information:

2500 BC

• Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) flourished around 2500 BC, which is often called the age of matured IVC. It forms the backbone of India as it is one of the major civilizations of the world.

Additional information:

• The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization spreading from today’s North-East Afghanistan to Pakistan and North-West India. This civilization flourished in the river basins of the Indus and the Ghaggar-Hakra River.
• There are seven important cities in the Indus valley civilization:
  • Mohenjo Daro
  • Harappa
  • Kalibangan
  • Lothal
  • Chanhudaro
  • Dholavira
  • Banawali

Buildings made of bricks

• The Indus River Valley Civilization, 3300-1300 BCE, also known as the Harappan Civilization, extended from modern-day northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
• feature of the Indus Valley Civilization
  • The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is that they followed the grid system.
  • Granaries constituted an important part of the Harappan cities.
  • The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan cities is remarkable, because in the contemporary buildings of Egypt mainly dried bricks were used.
  • The drainage system of Mohenjodaro was very impressive.
  • In almost all cities every big or small house had its own courtyard and bathroom.
  • In Kalibangan many houses had their wells.
  • At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town were also separated by walls.

Additional information:

• The Harappans were very well acquainted with the manufacturing and use of Bronze.
• Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.
• In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. In one figurine a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman.

Bronze age civilization

• The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE.

Additional information:

• In India, the era of the pre-Harappan age around 2000 BC is termed as the starting of the copper age, which extends till 700 BC.
• Important Copper Age Sites in India
  • Ahar (Banas Valley Settlement)
  • Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra)
  • Kayatha (Madhya Pradesh)
  • Malwa (Madhya Pradesh)
• The Iron Age was a period in human history that started between 1200 B.C. and 600 B.C., depending on the region, and followed the Stone Age and Bronze Age. The Iron Age existed in Africa, Europe, and Asia during prehistoric times in the Old World.

Bronze

• A Bronze Age Civilization that flourished between 2500-1750 BC in the north western parts of India and present-day Pakistan.
• Also called the ‘Harappan Civilization’ after the name of its first discovered site.

Additional information:

Inventions during the Bronze Age

• Wheel: The Mesopotamian civilisation was the region of the invention of the wheel during 3500 BC.
• Tongue sword: The tool was majorly used in the region of Europe by the military.
• Locks: The evidence of the first locks was found by Bronze Age people securing their valuables.

The various other inventions of the age were ropes, umbrellas, socketed axes with sharp bronze fronts, etc.

Harappa

• The Indus River Valley Civilization, 3300-1300 BCE, also known as the Harappan Civilization, extended from modern-day northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
• There are seven important cities in the Indus valley civilization:
  • Mohenjo Daro
  • Harappa
  • Kalibangan
  • Lothal
  • Chanhudaro
  • Dholavira
  • Banawali

Vishnu

The Harappans worshipped a variety of deities, including nature and fertility gods and goddesses. However, they did not worship all the gods and goddesses that are worshipped in Hinduism today.

• Seal-Male deity Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-siva)-three-horned heads, and is represented in the sitting posture of a yogi, with one leg placed above the other surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and below his throne there is a buffalo, and at his feet two deer.
• Prevalence of the Phallus (lingam) and Yoni worship. The Rig Veda speaks of non-Aryan people who were phallus worshippers.
• Chief female deity was mother Goddess. They also worshipped fire.
• The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees (ex: pipal) and animals (unicorn, humped bull etc).
• Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces and, therefore, they used amulets against them.

Ayyappa

• Pashupati or the Proto Shiva was the chief deity worshipped by the people of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Lord Shiva was known as ‘Mahayogi’ or the prince of Yogis,and ‘Pashupati ‘or the Prince of animals.
• The name Proto Shiva was assigned by Sir John Marshall, who carried out the excavations in Mohenjo Daro.

Additional information:

• Chief female deity was mother Goddess. They also worshipped fire.
• The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees (ex: pipal) and animals (unicorn, humped bull etc).
• Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces and, therefore, they used amulets against them.

Rigveda

• The Rigveda Samhita is the Veda with the most verses, containing 10,600 verses across 1,028 hymns and 10 books, or mandalas. The Rigveda is the oldest Veda, dating back to 1800–1100 BCE, and is considered the oldest known Vedic Sanskrit text.

Additional information:

• Yajurveda: Stands to mean ‘Worship Knowledge’, Yajurveda dates back to 1100-800 BCE; corresponding with Samaveda.
• Atharvaveda: Stands to mean a tatpurusha compound of Atharvan, an ancient sage, and knowledge (atharvan+knowledge), it dates back to 1000-800 BCE.

Sama Veda: It is also known as the "Book of Song," "Veda of Chants," or even "Yoga of Song." It is a compilation of tunes and chants.

Rigveda

• The Rigveda is the oldest Veda, dating back to 1800–1100 BCE, and is considered the oldest known Vedic Sanskrit text.
• It is divided into ten books (known as mandalas).
• It also includes Vishvamitra's famous Gayatri mantra and the Purusha Sukta prayer (the story of Primal Man).
• The Rigvedic Priest was known as Hotri.

Additional information:

• Yajurveda: Stands to mean ‘Worship Knowledge’, Yajurveda dates back to 1100-800 BCE; corresponding with Samaveda.
• Atharvaveda: Stands to mean a tatpurusha compound of Atharvan, an ancient sage, and knowledge (atharvan+knowledge), it dates back to 1000-800 BCE.
• Sama Veda: It is also known as the "Book of Song," "Veda of Chants," or even "Yoga of Song." It is a compilation of tunes and chants.

760

• The Rigveda Samhita is the Veda with the most verses, containing 10,600 verses across 1,028 hymns and 10 books, or mandalas. The Rigveda is the oldest Veda, dating back to 1800–1100 BCE, and is considered the oldest known Vedic Sanskrit text.
• It is divided into ten books (known as mandalas).
• It also includes Vishvamitra's famous Gayatri mantra and the Purusha Sukta prayer (the story of Primal Man).
• The Rigvedic Priest was known as Hotri.

Additional information:

• The Gayatri mantra (Savitri) is also found in the Rig-Veda.
• This Vedic literature mentions the varna system, four-fold division of society, 'Sudra,' Gamester's Lament, and Purusha Shukta Hymns.